This blog post sets out to explore the reasons why many African revolutionary movements have failed to lead African states to better living standards and the failure of opposition parties to offer viable alternatives. It will commence by discussing various definitions of revolution, with particular attention given to those in the African context.
It will then examine and analyse several African revolutionary movements such as the Mozambique Liberation Front and the Kenyan Mau Mau uprising to explain how these revolutions have failed to lead Africa to greater prosperity and security. In doing so, issues such as poor leadership, lack of resources, oppressive dictators and hostile colonial governments, will be discussed. Finally, the essay will examine why opposition parties fail to garner popular support, by looking at various factors such as ethnic divisions, mode of opposition and lack of funding.
There are three common types of revolutions that I would like to briefly define with examples, in the African context;
1. Political Revolution:
A political revolution is a fundamental change of political power or structure, usually through the replacement of one government with a new government. It may result in the overthrow of a regime or system and lead to large-scale social and political transformation. In the African context, this has often been seen in the replacement of Western-backed regimes with indigenous ones. Examples include the revolutions in Ethiopia in 1974, Angola in 1975, and Zimbabwe in 1980.
2. Social Revolution:
A social revolution is a fundamental change of social norms and customs. It may be driven by a sudden and broad-based wave of popular discontent or as a result of deliberate attempts by political leaders. In the African context, social revolutions have sought to challenge deeply entrenched patriarchal and cultural values. One example is the 1979 Revolution in Guinea-Bissau, which brought with it the goal of establishing a more egalitarian society.
3. Economic Revolution:
An economic revolution is a dramatic and fundamental shift in the structure of an economy. It can include the substitution of capitalist or socialist ideologies, increased privatisation, or a restructuring of production. In the African context, these types of economic revolutions have often been associated with attempts to reduce economic inequality and promote economic development. Examples include the economic reforms of Kenyan President Jomo Kenyatta in the 1960s and Ghanaian President Kwame Nkrumah in the 1950s.
The African continent has witnessed several revolutionary movements since the 1960s, which aimed at overthrowing colonial powers and oppressive regimes. Despite their noble intentions, these movements failed to lead Africa to prosperity as they were often characterised by corruption, mismanagement, and prolonged conflicts.
One of the key reasons why revolutionary movements in African politics failed to bring about prosperity is because of the nature of the people who led them. In many cases, these leaders were more interested in maintaining their power and enriching themselves rather than advancing the interests of their citizens. As a result, corruption and nepotism were rampant, and public funds were embezzled, leading to stagnant economic growth and increased poverty.
Many of these revolutionary movements lacked a clear plan for economic development and governance structures, resulting in political and economic instability, and internal conflicts over resources and power. This lack of planning, coupled with resource depletion and environmental degradation, further hindered economic progress in Africa.
The African revolutionary movements of the 1960s and 1970s, such as the Mozambique Liberation Front (FRELIMO) and the Kenyan Mau Mau Uprising, were aimed at overthrowing colonial rule and establishing democracies. However, these movements have not been able to bring about the widespread level of prosperity and security that many of their leaders envisioned for their countries.
One factor contributing to the failure of these revolutions is the lack of effective leadership. FRELIMO, for example, was only able to rally a small group of less than 2000 militants, while the Mau Mau Uprising lacked any unified internal leadership, perpetuating divisions and restricting it from becoming a cohesive, organised force capable of unseating colonial rule. Consequently, both movements faced severe suppression and were overpowered by the superior military and economic resources of the colonial forces.
In addition, many African revolutions lacked the social, economic and political infrastructure necessary to support a successful transition to democracy. For example, the FRELIMO was largely successful in transforming Mozambique from a colonial state to an independent nation. However, it was unprepared to implement the economic and political reforms needed to create the necessary conditions for lasting prosperity. Consequently, Mozambique has become one of the poorest countries in the world and is beset with persistent political insecurity that has led to frequent armed conflicts. Similarly, the Mau Mau Uprising had limited success in securing the rights of the rural Kenyan population.
Opposition Politics
Similarly, opposition political parties have failed to offer alternative solutions to the problems faced by the continent because of several factors, including poor leadership and inadequate resources. Many opposition parties do not have clear policies or a vision for economic development, resulting in a lack of public support and limited international funding, which is essential for running effective campaigns.
African opposition politics has long been characterised by western-leaning policies and reliance on foreign funding. This pro-west approach has its roots in the post-colonial period and has widened during the present day. During this time, the African political landscape has seen the emergence of several opposition parties and movements, who espouse liberal-democratic principals and have been heavily funded by both foreign governments and international development organisations. However, despite significant international support, many of these endeavours have failed to gain traction and bring about meaningful change. In order to understand why this is the case and how it can be corrected, it is necessary to delve into the history of African opposition politics and look at the motivations and strategies employed by the involved actors.
Opposition politics and colonialism
The legacy of colonialism has had a significant and enduring impact on African politics. Post-colonial countries faced the challenge of transitioning to democracies, and the resultant governance often reflected western values and premised on principles of liberalism and individual liberty. As a result, international powers were often willing to support these nascent democracies, particularly through financial aid and by providing technical assistance. This wave of external support also created a political environment in which opposition parties and movements would be heavily reliant on external funding, and this has remained a characteristic of African politics to the present day.
The establishment of multiparty systems further incentivized external support for opposition politics. Through their foreign aid programs and policy initiatives, donor countries and international development organisations have been able to shape the political landscape in Africa.
Opposition repression and intimidation
Opposition leaders are often targeted and intimidated by incumbent governments through violent repression or legal harassment, making it difficult for alternative voices to be heard.
Throughout African history, we have seen examples of strong opposition leaders facing violence, threats and legal harassment at the hands of incumbent governments. These acts of repression have been used to silence those who challenge the status quo, suppress the popular voices of the people and maintain a stronghold of power.
The first example of such repression can be seen in Gabon in 1988, when opposition leader Jean-Olivier Ayina was arrested, beaten and tortured after Rene Mougo of the PDG (Parti Democratique Gabonais) government threatened a protest rally. Many more Gabonese citizens had also been threatened and intimidated in the lead up to the rally, showing the PDG’s efforts to suppress those voices who opposed their rule.
In 2000, Nigeria experienced another such event when popular opposition leader Muhammed Lawal was gunned down in his home. The assassin was allegedly linked to the then ruling President Sani Abacha, and Lawal’s murder was seen as a warning to those involved in the pro-democracy movement.
In 2004, Uganda saw the emergence of Kizza Besigye, an opposition leader within the Forum for Democratic Change (FDC). Besigye became a vocal opponent of then President Yoweri Museveni and was targeted by authorities in an armed raid at the FDC offices in November 2005. He was later charged with treason, though the courts eventually dropped the charges. It was seen as an effort to intimidate and discredit him.
Revolutionary movements and opposition political parties have failed to bring about sustainable prosperity in African politics because of inadequate leadership, inadequate planning, and limited resources. To achieve long-term economic progress and political stability, African countries need to invest in transparent and accountable governance structures, economic planning, and sustainable resource management.
Alternative political leaders should focus on developing evidence-based policies, creating national dialogue and building coalitions in order to gain public support and influence change. Moreover, the international community can provide much-needed support and financial resources to opposition parties and revolutionary movements to help achieve their goals.
In conclusion, African revolutionary movements and opposition political parties have played a significant role in changing the socio-economic landscape of their countries. Some have successfully transformed their nations, while others failed to achieve their goals.
Examples of successful revolutionary movements include the African National Congress (ANC) in South Africa, which fought against apartheid and eventually led to the end of institutionalised racial segregation. In Zimbabwe, the Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU) and Zimbabwe African People’s Union (ZAPU) Patriotic Front; which later merged into (ZANU-PF) helped to end colonial rule and promote economic development.
On the other hand, some revolutions did not live up to their promises. For example, the Arab Spring movements in North Africa failed to bring about lasting change in many countries, such as Egypt and Libya, resulting in instability and conflict. Similarly, the Democratic Republic of Congo’s (DRC) M23 rebel group failed to establish a viable state that represented the people’s interest.
As we look to the future, it is essential to recognize that there is no single recipe for successful revolutionary change or effective opposition. Still, we must study the successful examples and the factors that led to their success. Investing in good governance and promoting inclusive economic development can increase the likelihood of peaceful, democratic change.
In summary, change is a slow and difficult process, and there will be setbacks and failures. Still, we must continue to support the efforts of those who seek to promote democracy, human rights, and economic prosperity in their countries. We must also engage in rigorous study and analysis to learn from both successful and failed revolutionary movements and opposition political parties. By doing so, we can help foster a world where people of all nations can achieve their full potential.
Tongai Speaks 